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Racial/Cultural/Ethnical Makup of The United States

When the Explorers, Navigators, Conquisitors, Fishermen, Slaves first ventured from the Old World of Europe, Africa and Asia into the New World of North America's present-day United States, there were many nations and tribes of American Indians occupying the territory. Today, the United States Government, recognizes 574-American Indian tribes and Alaska Native entities in the U.S. The first Europeans to reach the mainland of North America (Vineland) in what is now Maryland or Virginia in the United States or lands around the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in Canada., was Viking explorer Leif Eriksson and his party, circa 11-century AD.

The first Hispanic to explore the United States was Spanish Conquistador/explorer Juan Ponce de León's expedition to Florida in 1513. The first Hispanic settlement in the United States was established at St. Augustine, Florida on September 8, 1565, by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. The first Asian immigration to the United States were Philippine sailors aboard a Spanish galleon who arrived at Morro Bay, California in 1587, and the first Asian settlement was established by Philippine sailors at St. Malo near New Orleans, Louisiana circa. 1763.

The first White European to visit present day United States was Sir Francis Drake, who on June 5, 1579, made landfall at South Cove, Cape Arago, Oregon, and on July 23, 1579, his ship anchored at the Farallon Islands, off the coast of San Francis, California. White European English Captain Christopher Newport of the Virginia Company of London established the colony of Jamestown, Virginia on May 4, 1607.

The first Africans to arrive in the United States were “20 and odd” enslaved African Angolans kidnapped by the Portuguese and sold to the colonists at Jamestown, Virginia on August 20, 1619. The first legally sanctioned free African settlement in the United States was Fort Mose, Florida, established when Spanish Governor Manuel de Montiano ordered its construction in 1738. The Fort was then led by an African escaped slave who had been baptized in the Catholic Church as Francisco Menéndez.

When Alaska became a state on January 3, 1959, the United States recognized the Alaska Natives, which includes the Aleuts, Inupiat, Yuit, Athabascans, Tlingit and Haida. When Hawaii became a state on August 21, 1959, the United States recognized the Native Polynesian Hawaiians (Kānaka Maoli).

Native Indian Nations - U.S. Territory - Africans - Europeans - Hispanics - Asians

United States Federally Recognized Native Indian Tribes & Nations

The Blackfeet Tribe of the Blackfeet Indian Reservation of Montana (Wikipedia), is a federally recognized tribe of Siksikaitsitapi people. The Blackfeet reside on an Indian reservation in Montana, which was established by treaty in 1855. The Blackfeet Indian Reservation is home to the 17,321-member Blackfeet Nation, whose main community is Browning, Montana, which is the seat of tribal government. Tribal members primarily belong to the Piegan Blackfeet (Ampskapi Piikani) band of the larger Blackfoot Confederacy that spans Canada and the United States. The Blackfeet people settled in the region around Montana beginning in the 17th-century. Previously, the Blackfeet resided in an area of the woodlands north and west of the Great Lakes. Pressure exerted by British traders in present-day Canada upon the tribes in the area drove the Blackfeet out and onto the Northern Plains. The Blackfeet eventually acquired firearms and horses, and the acquisition of these two pieces of technology allowed them to become a formidable example of the classic Plains Indian culture. The Blackfeet became a powerful force, controlling an area that extended from current day Alberta Province, Canada nearly to Yellowstone National Park, and from Glacier Park to the Black Hills of South Dakota. Before the 19th century, the Blackfeet were recognized as one of the most aggressive and strongest military powers in the Great Plains. Until 1806, they prevented European and American traders and explorers from entering their territories, and they also successfully warred against other tribes. In the late 19th century, Blackfeet territory was encroached upon by European Americans and Canadians, whereas various branches of the Blackfeet were forced to cede lands and ultimately to move to smaller Indian reservations in the United States and Canada. (Wikipedia)

Blackfeet Tribe of Blackfeet Indian Reservation of Montana

Territory Of Puerto Rico

Territory Of Samoa

Territory Of Guam

Territory of Virgin Islands

Spanish Bourbon Rulers Enacted Reforms in Puerto Rico in 1800s

Puerto Rico's location and wealth made it a valuable military outpost for Spain, and the Spanish built forts and castles to protect the island. Sparked by the possibility of immense wealth, many European powers, including the French, English, and Dutch made attempts to wrest control of Puerto Rico from Spain. In 1528, the French attacked and burned the town of San Germán, and destroyed other early Spanish settlements. Then in 1538, and 1554, the French again attacked Puerto Rico. In 1598, English troops occupied a part of Puerto Rico, but due to an outbreak of dysentery, the English were forced to leave Puerto Rico after they had captured the city of San Juan and the Spanish fortress Castillo San Felipe del Morro. In 1625, the Dutch attacked San Juan. In 1797, the French and Spanish declared war on Great Britain. The British again attempted to capture the island, invading San Juan with an invasion force and an armada, but the French and Spanish army successfully repulsed the British, who withdrew. During the 18th century, Spain’s Bourbon rulers ordered their colonial representatives to carry out sweeping economic and administrative reforms that promoted trade between Puerto Rico and Spain, stimulated agricultural production, and integrated Puerto Rico's various military units into a unified command, all in order to convert Puerto Rico from a financial drain to a major economic asset. The Spanish Bourbons encouraged Puerto Rico’s commercial agriculture, and the island’s population grew from 45,000 in 1765 to more than 155,000 in 1800. Sugarcane by 1776, which until then had been produced only in small amounts, was augmented by large sugar plantations using African slaves. From 1765 to 1800, the African slave population increased from about 5,000 to more than 13,300. In 1808, when Napoleon I (Wikipedia), invaded the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and placed his brother on the Spanish throne, the colonies of South and Central America asserted their right to govern themselves in the name of the imprisoned Bourbon king, Ferdinand VII. As the revolutions progressed on the mainland, many loyal Spanish colonists found refuge in Puerto Rico rather than returning to Europe. In 1815, following the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, the Bourbon government was restored in Spain, marking the end of the French occupation and the return of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty to power. The restored Bourbon government of Spain granted ample economic liberties to Puerto Ricans in an attempt to reward their past loyalty and to ensure their future support for the empire (Britannica)

On October 21, 1976, President Gerald Ford signed United States 94–584, (U.S. Law), granting the citizens of the United States Virgin Islands (UCVI), the right to organize their own government and establish a constitution. However, the Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands from 1954, still defines the islands' government. Cultivation of sugarcane in St. John (Sunshine Daydream), Virgin Islands dates back to the 18th century when Danish colonists recognized the island’s fertile soil and favorable climate as ideal for growing sugarcane, established plantations on the island. By 1733, plantation developers had built 109 plantations, and slaveholders owned more than 1,000 African slaves on St. John, creating an enduring legacy of African influence on the island’s culture. During the 19th century, St. John experienced a significant boom in the sugar industry, with these plantations becoming the epicenter of economic activity on the island, as the majority of the population engaged in sugarcane cultivation and processing. The prosperity of the sugar industry in St. John faced numerous challenges throughout the 19th century: Introduction of beet sugar in Europe reduced demand for Caribbean cane sugar; Hurricanes, droughts, and pests posed significant threats to sugarcane crops, leading to periodic declines in production, And the abolition of slavery in 1848, led the emancipated African slaves to seek better opportunities, independence, and gradually moving away from plantation work. This resulted in labor shortages and also further hindering the sugar industry’s viability. By the late 19th century, many sugar plantations in St. John were abandoned or converted to other agricultural activities, and the rise of tourism in the 20th century shifted the focus of the island’s economy. (Sunshine Daydreaming) Ultimately, with the demise of the sugar industry in 1966, and as money poured in from the United States, the island's economy, along with development of an oil refinery, an aluminum bauxite refinery, and rum distilleries, the economic swing from a reliance on agriculture to that of tourism. The tourist industry manifested the Virgin Islands "dynamic growth," over the next two decades (Dookhan, p.287). By 1970, although the Virgin Islands had not achieved complete economic self-sufficiency, the territory was poised achieve exponential economic growth. (Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture).On May 8, 1995, the Department of Tourism was established with the primary responsibility for the formulation, implementation, administration and coordination of programs and policies pertaining to all aspects of tourism. Tourism is a major industry sector on the U.S. Virgin Islands: Leisure and hospitality accounts for roughly 18% of employment, whereas, retail trade represents another 15%. The territorial government is also a major employer, representing more than 25% of jobs. Until recently, oil refining had been a major industry; now, the most prevalent manufacture of the islands is rum. However, tourism has historically been a major industry of the Virgin Islands, both as a major stop-off for cruise liners and as a tropical destination. (Federal Reserve Bank of New York)

Government House: U.S. Naval Station Served As U.S. Samoa Center of Government

Virgin Islands Department of Tourism: Promote Economic Growth Thru Tourism

Treaty of Paris Ends Spanish American War Ceding Guam to United States

Although American Samoa is self-governing under the Constitution of Samoa that became effective on July 1, 1967, Samoa is on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories, a listing which is disputed by Samoan territorial government officials, who consider themselves to be self-governing. American Samoa (U.S. Department of Interior), became a U.S. territory by deed of cession in 1900. Then the matai (local chiefs) of Tutuila (Wikipedia), the largest island in American Samoa, also ceded the island to the U.S. in 1900. Manu'a islands (Wikipedia), followed in 1904, and Swains Island (Wikipedia), joined the territory in 1925 by an act of the Congress. The Mau movement (Wikipedia), was a non-violent during the first half of the 20th century. As the movement grew, leadership came under the country's chiefly elite matai leaders. The Mau movement also included women who supported the national organization through leadership and organization as well as taking part in marches. The Mau movement ended on December 29, 1929, which would become known as "Black Saturday," when New Zealand military police fired upon a peaceful demonstration, killing 11 protestors and wounding 50. The American Samoa Mau movement was suppressed by the U.S. Navy. In 1930 the U.S. Congress sent a committee to investigate the status of American Samoa. During World War II (1939-1945), U.S. Marines stationed in Samoa outnumbered the local population and had a huge cultural influence. Young Samoan men from age 14 and above were combat-trained by U.S. military personnel. Samoans served in various capacities during World War II, including as combatants, medical personnel, code personnel, and ship repairmen. In 1949, the U.S. Department of Interior introduced in Congress Organic Act 4500, in an attempt to incorporate American Samoa, The Act was ultimately defeated, primarily through the efforts of Samoan chiefs, led by Tuiasosopo Mariota. In 1950 the Department of the Interior began to administer American Samoa. By 1956, the U.S. Navy-appointed governor was replaced by Peter Tali Coleman, who was locally elected. Although technically considered "unorganized" however since the U.S. Congress has not passed an Organic Act for the territory, American Samoa is self-governing under a constitution that became effective on July 1, 1967. The U.S. Territory of American Samoa is on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories, a listing which is disputed by the territorial government officials, (Wikipedia)

Aggressive and ambitious, the United States had established itself as a player in the arena of world geopolitics, irritating Spain’s autocratic rule of Cuba. The USS Maine was sent to Havana, Cuba in January 1898 to protect American interests during the Cuban revolt against Spain. But the Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, on February 15, 1898, killing 266 crew members and naval officers. The explosion shocked the American public, and many Americans blamed Spain for destruction of the ship. The U.S. Naval Court of Inquiry concluded that the ship was destroyed by a submerged mine, but they were unable to assign blame to any specific person or group. However, the implication was clear, and the U.S. Congress declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898, initiating the Spanish-American War (Britannica). During the War, the USS Charleston, a single American cruiser, was sent to Guam, arriving off the coast of Guam on June 20, 1898. The Spanish garrison on the island had no knowledge of the war and no real ability to resist the American forces. The Spanish surrendered without resistance, and the island passed into American control. The event was the only conflict of the Spanish–American War on Guam. The island had been under Spanish control since 1668, and by time of the war, Guam had been neglected and there was only a small Spanish military presence there. When U.S. Navy Captain Henry Glass, captain of the Charleston, arrived at Guam's harbor, he was met by prominent civilians of Guam and informed that war had been declared between the U.S. and Spain on April 25, 1898. However, Spanish officials were amazed when they heard this, and the news that they were now prisoners of war, because no dispatches or mail had arrived since April 9 to enlighten them. The after much discussion on Guam's shore, Lieutenant John Twiggs Myers, marched the Marines through the boathouse and lined up his soldiers so that the Spanish and native troops were between the Americans and the ocean. The 54 Spanish regulars and two lieutenants were disarmed, placed in a vessel, and transported to his transport ship City of Sydney. Captain Glass went ashore and raised an American flag over the fortifications while the bands aboard Australia and City of Peking played "The Star-Spangled Banner". His orders included destroying the island's forts, but Glass decided that they were in such disrepair that he left them as they were. Afterward, Captain Glass took one of the prominent civilians, Francisco Portusach to his cabin, and appointed him governor of the island, until the arrival of proper American authority. The Charleston and the three transports then left the harbor on 22 June, later joining Dewey's fleet at Manila, Philippines. The Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, ended the Spanish-American War and established the United States as a global power: Cuba was guaranteed independence; Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States, and Spain sold the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. The Spanish-America War cost the United States $250 million and 3,000 lives, 90% of whom were lost to disease. The war also led to the annexation of Hawaii, which President McKinley and Congress made a U.S. territory on August 12, 1898. (Wikipedia)

European Descendants

African Descendants

Latin/Hispanic Descendants

Asian Descendants

Azerbaijan Flag Raised at San José City Hall to Mark Country's 23rd Independence

Maltese Americans (Wikipedia), are people with Maltese ancestry. The first immigrants from Malta to arrive in the United States did so during the mid-eighteenth century, settling in New Orleans, Louisiana. Many Americans assumed Malta was part of Italy, and in some cases "Born Malta, Italy" was put on tombstones of Maltese people because of the confusion. In 1920, after WWI, Maltese immigration to the U.S. increased. when more than 1,300 Maltese immigrated to Detroit, Michigan, getting jobs in the expanding automobile industry, which drew the largest share of immigrants. It is believed that in the following years, more than 15,000 Maltese people emigrated to the United States, later getting U.S. citizenship. By 1990, it was estimated the number of Maltese immigrants and their descendants living in the U.S. to be as high as 70,000. The majority of Americans of Maltese descent are concentrated in Queens, New York, San Francisco and Chicago. The 2019 American Community Survey estimated that there were 42,058 Americans of Maltese ancestry living in the United States. Of these, 14,078 have Maltese as their only ancestry (Wikipedia). There were many changes in the family structure when the first Maltese immigrants came to the United States. Typically, the patriarchs came to the United States without their families. Sometimes they would bring sons, but the wives and children were often left on the homeland. The plan was that they would bring their entire family after they established themselves in their new country and were more financially stable. Oftentimes years lapsed before the entire family was reunited. In other cases, single men came to the United States and lived with relatives or close family friends who had come to the country earlier. They lived in communities that were heavily populated by other Maltese and often married Maltese women who came to America with their families. (Every Culture).

South Sudanese Americans (Wikipedia), are people of South Sudanese ancestry, or South Sudanese immigrants who have become American citizens. The population of South Sudanese Americans is estimated to be over 100,000, with significant populations in the following citie of Omaha, San Diego, Tennessee, Los Angeles, New York City, Alexandria, and Washington DC. (Wikipedia). Many Sudanese people immigrated to the United States in the 1990s as war refugees, escaping from the Sudanese Second Civil War. (Wikipedia). The Second Sudanese Civil War was a conflict from 1983 to 2005, between the central Sudanese government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army. It was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil War from 1955 to 1972. In 2000, the U.S. Department of State decided to accept some South Sudanese into the U.S. who were refugees of war. In 2001 a group of young South Sudanese refugees, called the Lost Boys of Sudan, moved to the U.S. Approximately 3,800 Lost Boys were allowed to resettle in the U.S. These youths mobilized the South Sudanese community in U.S. cities, forming a South Sudanese association and increasing its visibility. They were brought as child war refugees from South Sudan to parts of the U.S., including Michigan, Chicago, and Omaha. Although the civil war(s) originated in southern Sudan, they spread to other parts of Sudan, lasting for almost 22 years, one of the longest civil wars on record. The civil war however, resulted in South Sudan's independence on July 9, 2011. In the 2012 American Community Survey, 48,763 people were identified as Sudanese or Sudanese Americans who, or their ancestor had emigrated from Sudan to the U.S. in the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s. The South Sudanese in the United States created community networks and they celebrate May 16, 1983, Sudan People's Liberation Army Day, when the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) was formed in Sudan, marking the beginning of the Second Sudanese Civil War. (Wikipedia)

Bolivian Americans (Wikipedia), are people of Bolivian descent or of partial Bolivian descent. Bolivian Americans are usually people of Indigenous, Mestizo, or Spanish background but also having African, German, Croatian, Lebanese and/or Japanese heritage. The 2020 U.S. Census recorded a resident population of 331,449,281 Bolivians in all 50 states and Washington, D.C., reflecting an increase of 22,703,743, over 2010 Census. Small numbers of Bolivians have been immigrating into the United States since at least the California Gold Rush (1848-1855). But large-scale Bolivian immigration into the United States occurred between first, 1952 and the late 1960s. The second large wave of Bolivian immigration occurred between 1980 and 1988. Most of the first wave Bolivian immigrants consisted of middle- to upper-middle income occupational professionals or political dissidents which included engineers, medical doctors, academics and business executives. The second wave of Bolivian immigration resulted from Bolivia's fiscal policies in the 1970s which gave way to hyperinflation throughout most of the 1980s. Most of these immigrants consisted of lower-income Mestizo (European/Amerindian mix) and Indigenous Bolivians seeking to obtain work as service and manual laborers. Many Bolivians who emigrated to the United States came as tourists, but many remained in the U.S. in indefinite ways, setting with family and friends, making it difficult to know the number of Bolivians living in the United States. Although Bolivians have settled throughout the United States, they live mainly in Washington D.C., California and Maryland. There are also large groups of Bolivian immigrants in Texas, New York City, New Jersey, South Florida, North Carolina, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. Most Bolivian immigrants are high school or college graduates; and many work in companies, in government or in academia. (Wikipedia).

Azerbaijani Americans are people of full or partial Azerbaijani descent. Most Azerbaijani Americans have immigrated to the United States from Azerbaijan and Iran, with smaller numbers coming from Georgia, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine. The first phrase of Azerbaijani immigration to the United States began in 1920 following the collapse of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (Wikipedia), which consisted primarily of affluent individuals, political dissidents, and scientists fleeing the newly established Soviet regime in Azerbaijan. The 2nd phase of Azerbaijani immigration to the United States dates to the 1940-1950, and is associated with captured Azerbaijani soldiers who were captured after the World War II, as many Azerbaijani émigrés and POWs left the Soviet Union and Iran. The 3rd phase of Azerbaijani immigration to the United States includes migration from Iran in the 1950s-1960s. Among this group were also a number of expatriates who moved to the United States in pursuit of better economic opportunities. This wave of Azerbaijani immigrants settled mainly in New York City metropolitan area, and later in Florida, Texas, and especially in the Los Angeles, California area, where there is a large Iranian Azerbaijanis community. The 4th phase of Azerbaijani immigration to the United States dates to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan in the 1980s and 1990s, a conflict which led to the expulsion of approximately 724,000 Azerbaijanis from Armenia, Nagorno-Karabakh, and surrounding territories. Many of these Azerbaijanis fled to the United States and other countries. The Department of Homeland Security states that from 2001–2010, a total of 9,391 people from Azerbaijan were naturalized as U.S. citizens. These statistics do not include the refugees, legal non-immigrant aliens (temporary visitors) who numbered 4,938 in 2009, or the legal permanent residents (green card holders) who numbered 781 in 2010 (Wikipedia). (Center for Comparative Immigration Studies)

Territories of The United States

Descendants Of Refugees/Migrants/Immigrants & Asylees In The United States

United States Policy to Enter Country As Refugee, Migrant, Immigrant, Asylee

United States Citizenship And Immigration Services (USCIS)

The Abenaki People of Vermont, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine

The Abenaki (or Abnaki), (Legends of America), are an Algonquian-speaking people that call themselves Alnôbak, meaning “Real People”. The Abenaki were a linguistic and geographic grouping, rather than a single tribe, that were made up of numerous smaller bands and tribes who shared many cultural traits. Their homeland, which they called Ndakinna meaning “our land” extended across most of northern New England, (Maine, Vermont and New Hampshire), southern Quebec, and the southern Canadian Maritimes. Historically, the Abenaki have been classified into two geographic groups: Western Abenaki and Eastern Abenaki. The Eastern Abenaki consisting of the Kennebec, Maliseet, Penobscot, Ossipee, Mi’kmaq, and the Passamaquoddy tribes were concentrated in Canada and Maine. The Western Abenaki consisting of the Pennacook, Pequawket, Sokoki, and Winnipesaukee tribes were concentrated in Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. Before European contact, the Abenaki (excluding the Pennacook and Mi’kmaq) were estimated to have numbered as many as 40,000 people. However, after European contact, the people began to suffer from typhus, influenza, smallpox, diphtheria, and measles, resulting in 75% mortality among the tribes. After years of war and disease, there were less than 1,000 Abenaki remaining after the American Revolution. Their descendants live in on two reservations in Quebec, Canada, and are scattered around New England in America (Legends of America).

United States Non-Federally Recognized Native Indian Tribes & Nations

Indigenous People of The States & Former Territories Of Alaska & Hawaii

Former Territory Of Alaska

Former Territory Of Hawaii

Brooke Mallory, Pres. of Eyak Alaska Natives Foundation

King Kamehameha I Ruled Hawaiian Islands 1810 - 1819

Alaska Native Peoples (Native Federation), include the Aleut, Inuit, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Eyak, and a number of Northern Athabasca cultures. Today, between 15% to 20% of Alaskan residents are Alaska Native, consisting of many distinct cultures. The Eyak (Wikipedia), Alaska Native people who traditionally lived in the southeastern corner of Southcentral Alaska stretching from the Copper River Delta to Icy Bay along the Gulf of Alaska. The Eyak refer to themselves as DAXunhyuu ("the people") and refer to today's Eyak Native Village as IiyaaGdaad' ("at Eyak Native Village"). But the now officially recognized tribe, referred to as IiyaaGdAlahGAyuu ("People from Eyak Native Village"), as the tribe consists of descendants of Chugach Sugpiaq, Eyak, and Tlingit. The Eyak people initially moved out of the Alaskan interior down the Copper River coast. There they harvested the rich salmon fishing grounds. When the Russians arrived they recognized the Eyak people as a distinct culture and described their territory on Russian maps. The Russians also traded with the Eyak and sent them missionaries. Because of their small population, the Eyak were often raided and their territorial boundaries came under pressure from the Chugach Alaskan Natives to the west. The Tlingit Alaskan Natives on the east side, had better relations with the Eyak leading to their intermarriage and the assimilation of most Eyak. The Eyak's territorial boundary was pushed further contributing to the Eyak's decline. When the Americans arrived in Alaska, they opened canneries and competed with the Eyak for salmon. The integration and major diseases which were introduced by European settlers led to the further decline of the Eyak. As Eyak populations decreased the remaining Eyak began to congregate near the village of Orca. In 1880, the population of the village of Alaganik was recorded at 117 Eyak people and by 1890 it had declined to only 48 Eyaks. In 1900, the total Eyak population was estimated at 60. As more settlers arrived the last village became the town of Cordova, Alaska, and as of 1996, there were 120 partial Eyak descendants in the town. The last full-blood Eyak, Marie Smith Jones, died on January 21, 2008.

Alaska Native Peoples (Native Federation), include the Aleut, Inuit, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Eyak, and a number of Northern Athabasca cultures. Today, between 15% to 20% of Alaskan residents are Alaska Native, consisting of many distinct cultures. The Eyak (Wikipedia), Alaska Native people who traditionally lived in the southeastern corner of Southcentral Alaska stretching from the Copper River Delta to Icy Bay along the Gulf of Alaska. The Eyak refer to themselves as DAXunhyuu ("the people") and refer to today's Eyak Native Village as IiyaaGdaad' ("at Eyak Native Village"). But the now officially recognized tribe, referred to as IiyaaGdAlahGAyuu ("People from Eyak Native Village"), as the tribe consists of descendants of Chugach Sugpiaq, Eyak, and Tlingit. The Eyak people initially moved out of the Alaskan interior down the Copper River coast. There they harvested the rich salmon fishing grounds. When the Russians arrived they recognized the Eyak people as a distinct culture and described their territory on Russian maps. The Russians also traded with the Eyak and sent them missionaries. Because of their small population, the Eyak were often raided and their territorial boundaries came under pressure from the Chugach Alaskan Natives to the west. The Tlingit Alaskan Natives on the east side, had better relations with the Eyak leading to their intermarriage and the assimilation of most Eyak. The Eyak's territorial boundary was pushed further contributing to the Eyak's decline. When the Americans arrived in Alaska, they opened canneries and competed with the Eyak for salmon. The integration and major diseases which were introduced by European settlers led to the further decline of the Eyak. As Eyak populations decreased the remaining Eyak began to congregate near the village of Orca. In 1880, the population of the village of Alaganik was recorded at 117 Eyak people and by 1890 it had declined to only 48 Eyaks. In 1900, the total Eyak population was estimated at 60. As more settlers arrived the last village became the town of Cordova, Alaska, and as of 1996, there were 120 partial Eyak descendants in the town. The last full-blood Eyak, Marie Smith Jones, died on January 21, 2008.

To

Diaspora(s) & Reservationsin the United States

Maltese American Social Club of San Francisco, California

Present & Former Presidents of BAMS Organization of Bolivian American Doctors

Native American Indian Tribes & Nations

Southern Sudanese Community Center of San Diego, California

Photo: Janice S. Ellis - Ph.D., Author of "Life, Liberty, Pursuit of Happiness"

"Ensuring America’s democracy prevails must be done in every unit of this government. The threats that ultimately destroy a nation begin with a single step or action from within, often unnoticed until the destructive forces have gained momentum and established a foothold. Ukraine’s desperate fight to avoid authoritarian rule is a stark reminder of how important our democracy is, how much we need to protect it and continue working to make it better."

Quote: Janice S. Ellis - Ph.D., Author of "Life, Liberty, Pursuit of Happiness"